Highley, Robin, Dr

Dr Robin Highley

DPhil, FRCPath

School of Medicine and Population Health

Senior Clinical Lecturer in Neuropathology

robin.highley@sheffield.ac.uk
+44 114 222 2244

44 114 222 2290 (fax)

Room B28, ��«Ӱҵ Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN)

Full contact details

Dr Robin Highley
School of Medicine and Population Health
Room B28
��«Ӱҵ Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN)
385a Glossop Road
��«Ӱҵ
S10 2HQ

Profile

I graduated in Experimental Psychology from the University of Oxford in 1993 and subsequently completed a DPhil in Oxford studying the neuropathology of Schizophrenia from which I completed in 1997.

I then trained in medicine at the University of Birmingham from 1997-2002. Following this, I moved to ��«Ӱҵ, to train in neuropathology, gaining the European Fellowship of Neuropathology in 2008 and FRCPath in 2009.

On completing this training in 2009, I took up an MRC/Motor Neurone Disease Association Lady Edith Wolfson Fellowship to study Motor neurone disease. I became a Senior Clinical Lecturer in Neuropathology in 2012.

I also work as a Consultant Neuropathologist for the South and East Yorkshire Neuropathology Network, which provides diagnostic neuropathology services to the ��«Ӱҵ Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust and the Hull and East Yorkshire NHS Trust.

Research interests

I am interested in the neuropathology and pathophysiology of neurodegeneration, in particular motor neurone disease (MND), Parkinson’s disease and dementia.

I use standard neuropathological techniques to characterise post mortem tissue kindly donated by individuals with these diseases and to highlight contrasts with tissue from people who were free from disease. These methods are used to study genes, proteins and molecular pathways of interest and the pathological effects of gene mutations known to neurodegeneration.

I study mouse, zebrafish and cellular models of disease and the comparison of these with human tissue based pathology.

Current projects

The pathobiology and neuropathology of C9ORF72-mediated MND
Oligodendrocyte disease and function in MND
TIGAR-related pathology in Parkinson’s disease
Zebrafish models of Parkinson’s disease
The relationship between pathological and radiological measures of white matter in vascular dementia.

Publications

Journal articles

Allen SP, Al Sultan A, Kabucho Kibirige E, Tonkiss E, Hamer KJ, Castelli LM, Lin Y-H, Roscoe S, Stefanidis N, Mead RJ , Highley JR et al (2023) . Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 15.
Bauer CS, Cohen RN, Sironi F, Livesey MR, Gillingwater TH, Highley JR, Fillingham DJ, Coldicott I, Smith EF, Gibson YB , Webster CP et al (2022) . Acta Neuropathologica.
Cooper‐Knock J, Julian TH, Feneberg E, Highley JR, Sidra M, Turner MR, Talbot K, Ansorge O, Allen SP, Moll T , Shelkovnikova T et al (2022) . Brain Pathology.
Wilson LA, Heraty L, Ashford BA, Coelho S, Frangi AF, Pozo JM, Ince PG & Highley JR (2020) . Journal of Neuroscience Methods.
Ashford BA, Boche D, Cooper‐Knock J, Heath PR, Simpson JE & Highley JR (2020) . Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology.
Lorente Pons A, Higginbottom A, Cooper‐Knock J, Alrafiah A, Alofi E, Kirby J, Shaw PJ, Wood JD & Highley JR (2020) . The Journal of Pathology.
Appleby‐Mallinder C, Schaber E, Kirby J, Shaw PJ, Cooper‐Knock J, Heath PR & Highley JR (2020) . Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology.
Weinreich M, Shepheard S, Verber N, Wyles M, Heath P, Highley JR, Kirby J & Shaw P (2019) . Neuropathology & Applied Neurobiology.
Mozumder M, Pozo JM, Coelho S, Constantini M, Simpson J, Highley JR, Ince PG & Frangi AF (2019) . NeuroImage Clinical, 23.
Coelho S, Pozo JM, Costantini M, Highley JR, Mozumder M, Simpson JE, Ince PG & Frangi AF (2019) . Data in Brief, 23.
López KLR, Simpson JE, Watson LC, Mortiboys H, Hautbergue GM, Bandmann O & Highley JR (2019) . Brain Research, 1706, 218-223.
Waller R, Baxter L, Fillingham DJ, Coelho S, Pozo JM, Mozumder M, Frangi AF, Ince PG, Simpson JE & Highley JR (2019) . PLoS ONE, 14(1).
Wharton SB, Verber NS, Wagner BE, Highley JR, Fillingham DJ, Waller R, Strand K, Ince PG & Shaw PJ (2019) . Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology.
An H, Skelt L, Notaro A, Highley JR, Fox AH, La Bella V, Buchman VL & Shelkovnikova TA (2019) . Acta Neuropathologica Communications, 7.
Razak AA, O’Reilly GM, Highley R & Hussain MM (2019) . British Journal of Neurosurgery, 33(1), 96-98.
Coelho S, Pozo JM, Costantini M, Highley JR, Mozumder M, Simpson JE, Ince PG & Frangi AF (2018) . NeuroImage, 179, 275-287.
Almadani A, Dixit S, Rowland-hill C, Achawal S, Rajaraman C, O'Reilly G, Highley R, Hussain M, Baker L, Gill L , Morris H et al (2018) . The British Journal of Radiology, 91(1088), 20170271-20170271.
Olubajo F, Yermakova T, Highley JR & Arzoglou V (2017) . Journal of Neurosurgery: Spine, 27(3), 335-340.
Boyd PJ, Tu W-Y, Shorrock HK, Groen EJN, Carter RN, Powis RA, Thomson SR, Thomson D, Graham LC, Motyl AAL , Wishart TM et al (2017) . PLOS Genetics, 13(4).
Cooper-Knock J, Green C, Altschuler G, Wei W, Bury JJ, Heath PR, Wyles M, Gelsthorpe C, Highley JR, Lorente-Pons A , Beck T et al (2017) . Acta Neuropathol Commun, 5(1), 23-23.
Tu WY, Simpson JE, Robin Highley J & Heath PR (2017) . Neurobiology of Disease.
Highley JR, Pons AL, Cooper‐Knock J, Wharton SB, Ince PG, Shaw PJ, Wood J & Kirby J (2016) . Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology, 42(4), 377-389.
Bury JJ, Highley JR, Cooper‐Knock J, Goodall EF, Higginbottom A, McDermott CJ, Ince PG, Shaw PJ & Kirby J (2016) . Neuropathology, 36(2), 125-134.
Keatinge M, Bui H, Menke A, Chen Y-C, Sokol AM, Bai Q, Ellett F, Da Costa M, Burke D, Gegg M , Trollope L et al (2015) . Human Molecular Genetics, 24(23), 6640-6652.
Cooper-Knock J, Higginbottom A, Stopford MJ, Highley JR, Ince PG, Wharton SB, Pickering-Brown S, Kirby J, Hautbergue GM & Shaw PJ (2015) . Acta Neuropathologica, 130(1), 63-75.
Liverman C, Mafra M, Chuang S-S, Shivane A, Chakrabarty A, Highley R, Hilton DA, Byrne NP, Wesseling P & Perry A (2015) . Acta Neuropathologica, 130(2), 311-313.
Cooper-Knock J, Bury JJ, Heath PR, Wyles M, Higginbottom A, Gelsthorpe C, Highley JR, Hautbergue G, Rattray M, Kirby J & Shaw PJ (2015) . PLOS ONE, 10(5), e0127376-e0127376.
Cooper-Knock J, Kirby J, Highley R & Shaw PJ (2015) . Neurotherapeutics, 12(2), 326-339.
Raman R, Allen SP, Goodall EF, Kramer S, Ponger L-L, Heath PR, Milo M, Hollinger HC, Walsh T, Highley JR , Olpin S et al (2015) . Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol, 41(2), 201-226.
Peters OM, Shelkovnikova T, Highley JR, Cooper-Knock J, Hortobágyi T, Troakes C, Ninkina N & Buchman VL (2015) . Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology, 2(1), 29-37.
Beer AM, Cooper-Knock J, Higginbottom A, Highley JR, Wharton SB, Ince PG, Milano A, Jones AA, Al-Chalabi A, Kirby J & Shaw PJ (2015) . Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Frontotemporal Degeneration, 16(3-4), 249-251.
Highley JR, Kirby J, Jansweijer JA, Webb PS, Hewamadduma CA, Heath PR, Higginbottom A, Raman R, Ferraiuolo L, Cooper-Knock J , McDermott CJ et al (2014) . Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol, 40(6), 670-685.
Cooper-Knock J, Walsh MJ, Higginbottom A, Robin Highley J, Dickman MJ, Edbauer D, Ince PG, Wharton SB, Wilson SA, Kirby J , Hautbergue GM et al (2014) . Brain, 137(Pt 7), 2040-2051.
Keage HAD, Hunter S, Matthews FE, Ince PG, Hodges J, Hokkanen S, Highley JR, Dening T & Brayne C (2014) . J Alzheimers Dis.
Cooper-Knock J, Walsh M, Higginbottom A, Highley JR, Bury J, Dickman M, Rattray M, Heath P, Wyles M, Ince P , Wharton S et al (2014) . Neurology, 82(10_supplement).
Cooper-Knock J, Walsh M, Higginbottom A, Highley JR, Bury J, Dickman M, Rattray M, Heath P, Wyles M, Ince P , Wharton S et al (2014) . Neurology, 82(10_supplement).
Highley JR, Gebril OH, Simpson JE, Wharton SB, Kirby J, O'Brien JT, Barber R, Kalaria RN, Brayne C, Lewis CE , Shaw PJ et al (2014) . Journal of Aging Science, 2(1).
Gallagher MD, Suh E, Grossman M, Elman L, McCluskey L, Van Swieten JC, Al-Sarraj S, Neumann M, Gelpi E, Ghetti B , Rohrer JD et al (2014) . Acta Neuropathol, 127(3), 407-418.
Janaway BM, Simpson JE, Hoggard N, Highley JR, Forster G, Drew D, Gebril OH, Matthews FE, Brayne C, Wharton SB , Ince PG et al (2014) . Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol, 40(3), 258-269.
Cooper-Knock J, Frolov A, Highley JR, Charlesworth G, Kirby J, Milano A, Hartley J, Ince PG, McDermott CJ, Lashley T , Revesz T et al (2013) . Neurology, 81(9), 808-811.
Blackburn D, Randall MS, Hoggard N, Highley R & Harkness K (2013) . Practical Neurology, 13(4), 263-267.
Kirby J, Highley JR, Cox L, Goodall EF, Hewitt C, Hartley JA, Hollinger HC, Fox M, Ince PG, McDermott CJ & Shaw PJ (2013) . Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol, 39(5), 562-571.
Ismail A, Cooper-Knock J, Highley JR, Milano A, Kirby J, Goodall E, Lowe J, Scott I, Constantinescu CS, Walters SJ , Price S et al (2013) . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 84(1), 79-87.
Cooper-Knock J, Hewitt C, Highley JR, Brockington A, Milano A, Man S, Martindale J, Hartley J, Walsh T, Gelsthorpe C , Baxter L et al (2012) . Brain, 135(Pt 3), 751-764.
Ince PG, Highley JR, Kirby J, Wharton SB, Takahashi H, Strong MJ & Shaw PJ (2011) . Acta Neuropathol, 122(6), 657-671.
Witherick J, Highley JR & Hadjivassiliou M (2011) . Mov Disord, 26(11), 2138-2139.
Highley JR, Kirby J, Heath P, Jansweijer JA, Milo M, Ince PG & Shaw PJ (2010) TARDBP mutations, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and alternative splicing in human fibroblasts. BRAIN PATHOLOGY, 20, 32-32.
Kirby J, Goodall EF, Smith W, Highley JR, Masanzu R, Hartley JA, Hibberd R, Hollinger HC, Wharton SB, Morrison KE , Ince PG et al (2010) . Neurogenetics, 11(2), 217-225.
Hewitt C, Kirby J, Highley JR, Hartley JA, Hibberd R, Hollinger HC, Williams TL, Ince PG, McDermott CJ & Shaw PJ (2010) . Arch Neurol, 67(4), 455-461.
Blackburn D, Highley JR, Wharton S, Romanowski C, Bowen J & Sharrack B (2009) . APMIS, 117(10), 768-772.
Keller SS, Highley JR, Garcia-Finana M, Sluming V, Rezaie R & Roberts N (2007) . J Anat, 211(4), 534-555.
Mackenzie IRA, Bigio EH, Ince PG, Geser F, Neumann M, Cairns NJ, Kwong LK, Forman MS, Ravits J, Stewart H , Eisen A et al (2007) . Ann Neurol, 61(5), 427-434.
Parkinson N, Ince PG, Smith MO, Highley R, Skibinski G, Andersen PM, Morrison KE, Pall HS, Hardiman O, Collinge J , Shaw PJ et al (2006) . Neurology, 67(6), 1074-1077.
Highley JR, Walker MA, McDonald B, Crow TJ & Esiri MM (2004) Size of hippocampal pyramidal neurons in schizophrenia. Psiquiatria Biologica, 11(4), 129-133.
Highley JR, Walker MA, McDonald B, Crow TJ & Esiri MM (2003) . Br J Psychiatry, 183, 414-417.
Highley JR, DeLisi LE, Roberts N, Webb JA, Relja M, Razi K & Crow TJ (2003) . Psychiatry Res, 124(1), 11-23.
Highley JR, Walker MA, Crow TJ, Esiri MM & Harrison PJ (2003) . Am J Psychiatry, 160(6), 1177-1179.
Highley JR, Walker MA, Esiri MM, Crow TJ & Harrison PJ (2002) . Cereb Cortex, 12(11), 1218-1224.
Walker MA, Highley JR, Esiri MM, McDonald B, Roberts HC, Evans SP & Crow TJ (2002) . Am J Psychiatry, 159(5), 821-828.
Highley JR, Walker MA, Esiri MM, McDonald B, Harrison PJ & Crow TJ (2001) . Br J Psychiatry, 178, 337-343.
Suckling J, Roberts H, Walker M, Highley JR, Fenwick P, Oxbury J & Esiri MM (2000) . Acta Neuropathol, 99(5), 547-554.
McDonald B, Highley JR, Walker MA, Herron BM, Cooper SJ, Esiri MM & Crow TJ (2000) . Am J Psychiatry, 157(1), 40-47.
Chance SA, Highley JR, Esiri MM & Crow TJ (1999) . Am J Psychiatry, 156(11), 1720-1724.
Highley JR, McDonald B, Walker MA, Esiri MM & Crow TJ (1999) . Br J Psychiatry, 175, 127-134.
Highley JR, Esiri MM, McDonald B, Roberts HC, Walker MA & Crow TJ (1999) . Biol Psychiatry, 45(9), 1120-1127.
Highley JR, Esiri MM, McDonald B, Cortina-Borja M, Herron BM & Crow TJ (1999) . Brain, 122 ( Pt 1), 99-110.
Highley JR, Esiri MM, McDonald B, Cortina-Borja M, Cooper SJ, Herron BM & Crow TJ (1998) . Schizophr Res, 34(1-2), 13-25.
Highley JR, Esiri MM, McDonald B, Cooper SJ & Crow TJ (1998) . Schizophr Res, 34(1-2), 1-12.
Chance SA, McDonald B, Gerig G, Highley JR & Crow TJ (1998) A validation of MRI cortical surface rendering of the human post-mortem brain. SCHIZOPHR RES, 29(1-2), 87-87.
Walker MA, Highley JR, McDonald B, Roberts H & Crow TJ (1998) A stereological study of the volume of the hippocampus in postmortem control and schizophrenic brains. SCHIZOPHR RES, 29(1-2), 88-88.
Chance SA, Highley JR & Crow TJ (1998) The anatomy of the fornix and schizophrenia: A postmortem study. SCHIZOPHR RES, 29(1-2), 70-70.
McDonald B, Highley JR, Walker MA, Herron B, Cooper S & Crow TJ (1998) A postmortem study of the size and asymmetry of the parahippocampal and fusiform gyrii in schizophrenia. SCHIZOPHR RES, 29(1-2), 71-71.
Urbanek A, Garland E, Prescott E, King M, Olerinyova A, Wareing H, Georgieva N, Bradshaw E, Tzokov S, Knight A , Tartakovskii A et al () Molecular determinants of protein pathogenicity at the single-aggregate level. Advanced Science.
Wiseman JP, Scarrott JM, Alves-Cruzeiro J, Saffari A, Böger C, Karyka E, Dawes E, Davies AK, Marchi PM, Graves E , Fernandes F et al () . EMBO Molecular Medicine.
Benson BC, Shaw PJ, Azzouz M, Highley JR & Hautbergue GM () . Frontiers in Neuroscience, 15.

Chapters

Highley JR & Wharton SB (2024) , Greenfield's Neuropathology 10e Set (pp. 875-906). CRC Press
Highley JR & Sullivan N (2019) , Bancroft's Theory and Practice of Histological Techniques (pp. 306-336). Elsevier
Ince PG, Highley JR & Wharton SB (2015) Motor neuron disorders In Love S, Budka H, Ironside JW & Perry A (Ed.), Greenfield's Neuropathology (pp. 817-848). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
Highley JR & Sullivan N (2013) , Bancroft's Theory and Practice of Histological Techniques (pp. 353-380). Elsevier
Astbury C, Bancroft JD, Bartlett JH, Blythe D, Dunk L, Floyd AD, Gilbertson JA, Hand NM, Highley JR, Horobin RW , Hunt T et al (2013) , Bancroft's Theory and Practice of Histological Techniques (pp. xiii-xiv). Elsevier
Highley JR & Sullivan N (2012) Techniques in neuropathology In Suvarna KS, Layton C & Bancroft JD (Ed.), Theory and Practice of Histological Techniques (pp. 352-380). Churchill Livingstone
Highley JR & Ince PG (2012) The neuropathology of the motor neurone diseases In Strong MJ (Ed.), Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and the Frontotemporal Dementias OUP Oxford
Highley JR (2012) Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and the Frontotemporal Dementias In Strong MJ (Ed.), Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and the Frontotemporal Dementias OUP Oxford
Highley JR & Sullivan N (2007) , Bancrofts Theory and Practice of Histological Techniques E-Book (pp. 353-380).

Conference proceedings papers

Cro B, Norton E, Katharkamar A, Highley JR, Kurian KM, Jaunmuktane Z, Fabian M, Walker M, Nicholl J & Boche D (2025) Investigating the Inflammatory Response to Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy (CAA-ri). NEUROPATHOLOGY AND APPLIED NEUROBIOLOGY, Vol. 51
Ashford BA, Appleby-Mallinder CS, Dawson C, Matuszyk MM, Heath PR, Wei W, Dunning MJ, Boche D, Simpson JE & Highley JR (2023) Inflammatory pathology in human motor neuron disease. JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY, Vol. 261 (pp S5-S5)
Wilson LA, Heraty L, Ashford BA & Highley JR (2020) Tissue Microarray (TMA) Use in Post Mortem Neuropathology. NEUROPATHOLOGY AND APPLIED NEUROBIOLOGY, Vol. 46 (pp 46-46)
Appleby-Mallinder CS, Heath PR & Highley JR (2019) DNA Methylation in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY, Vol. 249 (pp S15-S15)
Waller S, Baxter L, Fillingham D, Coelho S, Pozo JM, Mozumder M, Frangi A, Ince PG, Simpson JE & Highley JR (2019) . Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology, Vol. 45(S1) (pp 33-33), 6 March 2019 - 8 March 2019.
(2016) . The Journal of Pathology, Vol. 240 (pp S1-S48)
Lorente-Pons A, Wood JD, Shaw PJ, Ince PG, Cooper-Knock J, Ramachandran A, Kirby J & Highley JR (2016) . NEUROPATHOLOGY AND APPLIED NEUROBIOLOGY, Vol. 42(S1) (pp 28-28), 2 March 2016 - 4 March 2016.
Robles-Lopez KL, Bandmann O & Highley JR (2016) The role of TIGAR in Parkinson's disease. NEUROPATHOLOGY AND APPLIED NEUROBIOLOGY, Vol. 42 (pp 34-35)
Lorente-Pons A, Wood JD, Shaw PJ, Ince PG, Cooper-Knock J, Ramachandran A, Kirby J & Highley JR (2015) Investigating the mechanisms underlying oligodendrocyte dysfunction in C9ORF72 ALS. NEUROPATHOLOGY AND APPLIED NEUROBIOLOGY, Vol. 41 (pp 26-27)
Beer A, Cooper-Knock J, Higginbottom A, Robin Highley J, Wharton SP, Milano A, Jones A, Al-Chalabi A, Kirby J & Shaw PJ (2014) . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, Vol. 85(10) (pp e4.130-e4)
Highley JR, Cooper-Knock J, Frolov A, Charlesworth G, Kirby J, Wharton SB, Ince PG, Shaw PJ, Wood N & Bandman O (2013) A pathological basis for the association of parkinsonism and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. NEUROPATHOLOGY AND APPLIED NEUROBIOLOGY, Vol. 39 (pp 51-51)
Cooper-Knock J, Highley JR, Hartley J, Milano A, Sawcer S, Compston A, Frolov A, Charlesworth G, Wood N, Bandmann O , McDermott CJ et al (2013) Neurodegeneration caused by intronic expansions of C9ORF72 is a clinically heterogeneous but pathologically distinct disease. LANCET, Vol. 381 (pp 32-32)
Ince PG, Janaway B, Wharton SB, Simpson JE, Highley JR, Matthews FE, Forster G & Brayne C (2013) Evidence for an ischemic origin of deep brain 'microbleeds'. CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASES, Vol. 35 (pp 42-42)
Green NH, Nicholls Z, Heath PR, Highley JR, Cooper-Knock J, Corfe BM, Wilson JH, Rattray M, Liu X, MacNeil S & Bury JP (2012) Barrett's Metaplasia: Exploiting a Tissue-engineered Model to Understand the Response of the Oesophageal Squamous Mucosa to Bile and Acid Exposure. JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY, Vol. 228 (pp S3-S3)
Highley JR, Smith O, Brockington A, Kirby J, Wharton SB, Spillantini M, Lowe JS, Layfield R, Shaw PJ & Ince PG (2007) Extra-motor manifestations of motor neurone disease and the role of TDP43 in ALS variants. NEUROPATHOLOGY AND APPLIED NEUROBIOLOGY, Vol. 33(2) (pp 264-265)
Hosny O, Highley JR, Simpson JE, Forster G, Wharton SB & Ince PG (2007) Axonal number and myelin sheath degeneration in MRI hyperintense white matter lesions in the aging brain. NEUROPATHOLOGY AND APPLIED NEUROBIOLOGY, Vol. 33(2) (pp 266-267)
Crow TJ, Highley R, McDonald B, Walker M & Esiri MM (1998) Deviations in brain structure as pointers to the role of asymmetry and sex in the genetics of schizophrenia.. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS, Vol. 81(6) (pp 533-533)
Highley R & Crow TJ (1996) A study of sylvian fissure asymmetries in the Runwell 3 series of psychotic brains. SCHIZOPHRENIA RESEARCH, Vol. 18(2-3) (pp XF2-XF2)

Preprints

Ashford BA, Simpson JE, Dawson C, Boche D, Cooper-Knock J, Heath PR, Fillingham D, Appleby-Mallinder C, Wei W, Dunning M & Highley JR (2025) , Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
Urbanek A, Garland EF, Prescott EE, King MC, Olerinyova A, Wareing HE, Georgieva N, Bradshaw EL, Tzokov SB, Knight A , Tartakovskii AI et al (2024) , Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
Lin Y-H, Dodd JE, Cutillo L, Castelli LM, Mihaylov SR, Norris K, Higginbottom A, Walsh MJ, Cooper-Knock J, Highley JR , Granata I et al (2024) , Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.

Teaching activities: I teach neuropathology and neuroanatomy to medical students as well as orthoptics students and postgraduate psychiatry trainees.