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How to use this guide

If you are planning a research project, or just curious to learn more about research, you can use this guide to get an overview of some key terms.

However, research methods vary hugely across different subject areas. Your course materials and tutors will be the best guide to doing research in your subject.

If you are doing a dissertation or large research project, we have guidance to help you with each stage of the process:

How to plan a dissertation or final year project

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Research questions

Before you choose your research methods, you need to identify one or more research questions, which you may be able to break down into more specific research objectives. In other words, what are you trying to find out?

Some examples of approaches to research include:

Scholarship of discovery

• Explore an under-researched area
• Develop or test out a new methodology or technique
• Extend or develop a previous study

Scholarship of summary

• Review the existing knowledge in a specific field
• Make connections between disciplines

Scholarship of application

• Replicate an existing study/approach in a different setting
• Apply a theoretical idea to a real world problem

Whichever approach you take, you need to express the purpose of your research in one or more clear research questions. The aim of your project will be to answer those questions.

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Research design

It’s important to spend time planning your research. You need to choose the methods that will allow you to answer your research questions.

Key issues to consider will include:

• Are you aiming to prove/disprove a hypothesis, or explore a more open question?
• What constitutes sufficient data for your research (whether experimental data or other forms of data such as primary sources)?
• How will you ensure that your data is valid? I.e. how confidently will you be able to report on the findings of your research?
• Is your data reliable? Have you been objective and would other researchers be able to replicate your project with the same results?
• Is your research plan feasible with the time and resources that you have available?

One of the best ways to develop your own research methodology is to learn about the approaches used by other researchers in your subject area.

What can you learn from their research design (including the limitations and shortcomings that they may have identified)?

Use library resources to find existing research in your subject area

Primary and secondary sources

Your research is likely to involve the use of either primary sources, secondary sources or both.

• Primary sources are the raw data of your research and can include pretty much anything that has not already been analysed. Primary sources include your own experimental data, data taken from other shared datasets and any other materials such as text, film, music or images that you are analysing as part of your research. 
• Secondary sources include material that has already been published that you are using as part of your literature review or to help inform your thinking about a topic more broadly. Secondary sources include an element of interpretation or analysis by their authors and include reference books, journal articles or blog posts. 

Imperfect research

All research is imperfect. It is your job as a researcher to do your best to mitigate potential issues with your research, but also to recognise that your findings may include a number of limitations. 

Some research may produce unexpected or negative results. Although that may feel frustrating or disappointing, it does not make your findings any less interesting! Identifying and explaining mistakes and issues is part and parcel of the research process, so be honest and save other researchers from repeating those mistakes in their future research.

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Types of research

Here is an overview of some commonly-used research definitions and methods.

Experimental research

Experimental research usually follows the principles of the scientific method. The researcher:

1. Makes an observation to describe a problem.
2. Formulates a testable hypothesis (prediction).
3. Uses experiments to test the hypothesis.
4. Adapts the hypothesis in light of the findings.

Experimental research usually involves a variable that can be controlled by the researcher and a variable that can be compared. It is often (but not always) carried out in a controlled environment to ensure that the findings are as valid as possible. 

Experimental research can be time and equipment intensive, so be sure to check that you will be able to access the appropriate apparatus, tools and laboratory space at the time when you will need it.

Sometimes, but not always, experimental research can be used to make absolute claims, i.e. to prove or disprove a hypothesis. More often, it will allow the researcher to refine and adapt a hypothesis and to identify further ways to test the hypothesis experimentally.

More guidance on experimental research

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Quantitative research

Quantitative research deals with quantities; i.e. numerical data. Quantitative research usually involves applying statistical techniques to identify patterns and relationships in the data. 

You might collect your own data or analyse existing data. Your tutors or your department liaison librarian can help you find suitable data sources for your subject area.

When deciding what type of data to use or create, you will need to consider:

• The size and reliability of your sample
• The quality of the data 
• What statistical analysis technique will you use? What data will you need to be able to perform the analysis that you are aiming for?
• Any restrictions on using the data, for example in relation to research ethics or data protection

View resources on statistical analysis

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Qualitative research

Qualitative research aims to explore the nuances of a problem, or to investigate an area in depth. It tends to focus on words and language as a way to explore the varied perspectives that may be involved in the area of research. It may also make use of visual data.

Qualitative research may draw on a very small sample to explore individual experiences in great depth (for example through one or more interviews), or it may use a large sample to investigate a range of opinions (for example through a survey).

Sometimes qualitative data will be used on its own, for example to develop one or more case studies. However, often qualitative data can also be analysed or 'coded' to identify themes, use of language, or to produce numerical data. These forms of analysis can then be used to make generalisations or draw conclusions. 

It should be noted, however, that conclusions based on qualitative data should be cautious and limitations and potential sources of bias should always be identified and acknowledged.  

There are lots of ways to collect qualitative data, each with their own advantages and disadvantages. For example:

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Mixed-Methods research

Mixed methods research combines qualitative and quantitative approaches within a single study.

You might want to use mixed methods research if:

• You need both qualitative and quantitative data to answer your research questions.
• You want to combine the strengths (and mitigate the limitations) of qualitative and quantitative approaches.

Some challenges in mixed methods research are:

• You need skills in both qualitative and quantitative methods. You might find it easier to start with a project that uses just one method.
• You will need to allow time to collect and analyse two different types of data.
• You will need to think about how to combine the analysis of the two different types of data.

Creswell, J.W. and Plano Clark, V.L. (2011) Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Second edition. Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA.

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Using critical theory

Critical theory is an approach to research that goes beyond the traditional formulations of quantitative and qualitative research to explore and challenge the socio-historical constructs of knowledge production. 

Critical theory is not only about describing the way things are, but is about understanding why things are the way they are. It draws on an analysis of historical processes combined with observation and interpretation of primary sources and data to explore the structural relations, inequalities and repressions that have contributed to the establishment of the status quo. 

Your role as a critical researcher is to understand the discourses and paradigms that have shaped your particular area of study and how it intersects with other related areas. You will also need to unpack your own ideological baggage to understand how your experience may inform your approach to your research area. What are the assumptions or implicit biases that underlie your own belief systems?

Critical theory recognises that no research is ever truly objective. The best you can do as a researcher is to identify the theoretical, social and cultural underpinnings of your work and to acknowledge that your conclusions should be understood within that wider context.

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Archival research

Archival research involves studying materials held in physical or digital collections. 

Some archives can be accessed online. In other cases you will need to visit in person and order documents in advance to allow staff to access them and make them available to you. Each archive will have its own regulations and procedures - make sure you read and understand them before you visit. 

Working in archives can be an extremely rewarding and exciting experience that gives you first-hand access to documents or materials that may be extremely rare or little-viewed.

How to find archival sources

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Next steps

• Research methods (statistical research)
• How to plan a dissertation project
• How to gain ethical approval

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Further resources

• Search the to access guidance and resources targeted to your subject area.
• is an online resource of SAGE content for research methods students and researchers, including SAGE book, journal, and reference content, research methods cases, methods videos and methods datasets.